History of Japan: A Brief Overview through imagery

Table of Contents

History of Japan: Pre-Ceramic Era

The Japanese archipelago’s first known human settlers date back to prehistoric times, circa 35,000 BCE. Little evidence of their presence remains and we have a limited understanding of the culture during this time. Various Paleolithic tools have been unearthed throughout the country since the Second World War, indicating that the people of this time lived in hunter-gatherer societies, used basic stone tools and had discovered fire. Interestingly, stone tools from around 30,000 BCE utilize technology that was not used elsewhere in the world until around 10,000 BCE. As there is no evidence of pottery knowledge, this time period between 10,000 and c.35,000 BCE is often referred to as the “pre-ceramic era”. This is the start of our amazing journey through the history of Japan. Keep reading!

History of Japan: Early Period

Jōmon Period (c. 10,000 BCE – 300 BCE)

Dogu figurine from the late Jōmon Period

During the Jōmon period, a hunter-gatherer civilization that attained a high level of cultural sophistication was present in Japan. From around 5,000 BCE, Jōmon societies began to settle in villages which ultimately led to a spike in population. Rice farming was introduced towards the end of this period. American researcher Edward S. Morse discovered various potteries prominent throughout the archipelago during this period and coined the term Jōmon to label this specific era. Jōmon means “cord-marked” and refers to the patterns pressed into the clay of the pottery. Figurines from the late Jōmon period indicate a marked increase in both technical and artistic skill and in ritual practices. Like their pre-ceramic ancestors, their workmanship often transcended that of other cultures around the world during that period.

Yayoi Period (c. 300 BCE – 300 CE)

The Yayoi period was one of technological and agricultural evolution. The origin of the Yayoi people is hotly debated, with suggestions that they could have originated from the Korean peninsula or China. Archaeological evidence indicates that the Yayoi people first emerged in Kyushu. As they expanded east towards the northern districts of Honshū, they slowly began to engulf the existing Jōmon culture. During this period, the settlement into permanent villages and the development of rice farming allowed the population to increase exponentially. Housing developed into wooden structures and a class-based society was introduced, with evidence suggesting early political organization and flourishing trade practices.

Yayoi Potteries unearthed in Yoshinogari Ruins

The term Yayoi comes from the Tokyo neighborhood where Yayoi pottery was first unearthed in 1884. Yayoi potters rotated their pottery while it was baked at significant temperatures. It differs from Jōmon pottery partly because of this notable technical advancement and also due to the lack of decoration. In other words, pottery became focused more on practical use than freedom of design.

Example of Wet-Rice Paddy in Toro Ruins, prominent during the Yayoi Period

Archeologists found rice husks and carbonized rice grains in the earliest Yayoi ceramics and on sites in northern Kyushu, evidencing rice cultivation by the early Yayoi. In addition, remnants of paddy fields with wooden piles dividing them were discovered near a number of settlement sites, along with irrigation systems with dams and underdrains. These provided insight into highly developed methods for creating and managing paddy fields.

Example of Yayoi Textile Clothing recreated in Yoshinogari Ruins

Clothing advanced significantly compared to the Jōmon era with the acquisition of textile knowledge. The Yayoi used vegetable fibers to make textiles woven on simple looms.

Kofun Period (c. 300 CE – 538 CE)

Ishibutai Kofun Tomb, Asuka Village, Nara Prefecture

Most of Japan had fallen under one kingdom’s rule by the end of the Kofun Period. The enormous “kofun” burial mounds, which started appearing around 250 CE, are the period’s most prominent archaeological feature.

The Kofun period, together with the subsequent Asuka period, are often collectively referred to as the Yamato period after the ruling clan. From the construction of the large Kofun tombs and the first recorded history in Japan, a clear understanding of the Yamato clan’s rise to power has become evident. The Yamato clan began their rule in the Shiki region of Yamato province (now Nara prefecture) in the southwest corner of the Nara (Yamato) Basin, as evidenced by the cluster of tombs in that area. Their role seemingly began as one focused on religious service, with Mount Miwa the object of their worship. Archaeological findings indicate advancements in agricultural methods, such as using iron tools for cultivation and improved ways of leveling and flooding paddy fields. The Yamato rulers used this technology to exert increasing control over trade and labor resources, which allowed them to extend their domain beyond the Nara plain to the rest of the archipelago and even into the Korean peninsula.

The Yamato clan climbed to new heights during the 5th century, when the imperial dynasty that still rules today is regarded to have been established. The tombs from this era are much larger than before, with the tomb of Emperor Ōjin believed to have taken 1,000 workers four years to complete. Based on Chinese models, the Yamato court comprised leaders of powerful clans that were presided over by a hereditary ruler. The Yamato people continued to expand territorially, increase trade with the Korean and Chinese societies and develop agricultural and military technology until their decline from the 6th century.

History of Japan: Classical Period

Asuka Period (c. 538 CE – 710 CE)

Portrait of Prince Shōtoku with his daughters

The Asuka period is characterized by the introduction of Buddhism to Japanese society in 538 CE and by significant artistic, social, and political transformations. The Yamato court reformed the government into a centralized administration with an imperial court. Prince Shōtoku Taishi served as regent for his aunt, empress Suiko, from 593 CE – 622 CE. A recognized intellectual, Taishi modeled his government on Chinese Confucian principles and Buddhist ideals of world peace and salvation for all living things.

Taishi introduced a number of reforms during his time as regent. He famously designed a system of 12 court ranks in 603 CE. By ranking court officials according to Confucian values of virtue, humanity, decorum, faith, righteousness and knowledge, Taishi aimed to encourage the appointment of officials according to merit. His establishment of the Seventeen-Article Constitution in 604 CE was intended to outline the basic law of the nation. It defined the three elements that made up the state: the ruler, the government ministers and the people. Taishi’s reforms were ultimately intended to legitimize the power of the royal house and prevent further erosion by the larger clans. However, the Prince died in 622 CE, before his ideas could be fully implemented. His family were killed in 643 CE by the Soga family, who were later overthrown in 645 CE, during a coup led by Prince Nakano Ōe and Nakatomi Kamatari.

The era that followed, running from 645 CE – 649 CE, was named the Taika Reform (meaning “great change”). The reforms redistributed land from the great clans back to the people. Increasing taxes were levied and hereditary titles and property rights were abolished. Nakano Ōe was crowned Emperor Tenji in 662 CE, and later Emperor of Japan in order to emphasize the divine origins of the Yamato clan. The Japanese political system and governmental structure underwent a number of reforms until the final form of the Taihō Code was enacted in 701 CE. The Taihō Code integrated pre-existing laws and defined the organization of the central government and its subordinate local administrations. These legal changes led to the establishment of the ritsuryō state, a centralized administration in the Chinese style that lasted for 500 years.

Nara Period (710 CE – 794 CE)

The imperial capital was moved from Asuka to Nara in 710 CE. While in previous periods the capital had switched with every succeeding emperor, modern-day Nara served as the administrative center for 75 years (with a five-year interruption from 740 CE – 745 CE). As with many other aspects of upper-class Japanese society, the new capital city was based on Chang-an in China. During this period, Chinese writing, fashion and interpretation of Buddhism were adopted.

The imperial court prioritized developing a system to record history. This led to the production of the first works of Japanese literature and the consequent spread of written language. Political works were used to cement the legitimacy of the emperors and the existing power structure in Japan. The Kojiki and Nihon Shoki works, which contained chronicles of legendary narratives of early Japan and its creation myth, described the imperial dynasty as descendants of the gods. Buddhism was designated Japan’s official religion, giving monasteries more political leverage, and the government established temples throughout the country.

Great Buddha Temple (Daibatsuden) was built during the Nara Period

Japan suffered many natural calamities during this time, including wildfires, droughts, famines, and disease outbreaks. The smallpox epidemic in 735 CE – 737 CE resulted in the deaths of close to a third of the population. Emperor Shōmu, fearing that his lack of devotion had caused the disaster, expanded the government’s support for Buddhism. This included the construction of the Daibutsu temple (Great Buddha Temple), which opened in 752 CE.

Heian Period (794 CE – 1185 CE)

The Heian period began when Emperor Kanmu relocated the imperial court to Heiankyo (now Kyoto) to escape Nara’s Buddhist influence. The Heian period was remembered as a time of peace, during which poetry and literature flourished. However, the authority of the imperial court waned throughout the Heian era, as the court lost focus on government administration outside the city and became preoccupied with power struggles within the court. Ultimately, this period of peace weakened Japan economically and culminated in many of its population living in poverty.

During this period, the Fujiwara clan intermarried with the imperial family and came to wield the real power. Over time, a number of great aristocratic families and religious orders successfully obtained tax-exempt status for their shōen manors. By the eleventh century, shōen owners held more land in Japan than the government. As a result, the imperial court was denied tax revenue necessary to fund its national army and its authority was continually diminished. By the year 1000, the Fujiwara clan had almost absolute control over the court. The rise of the military class began from 1086 and reached a peak by the end of the Heian Period, when the military might began to dominate the government.

Scenes from the Tale of Genji circa. 1700

While conflict bubbled beneath the surface in the capital, fine arts and culture thrived throughout the country. The poetry collections Kokinshū and the Tosa Diary, written by the poet Ki no Tsurayuki, and Sei Shōnagon’s collection of miscellaneous writings, The Pillow Book and Murasaki Shikibu’s Tale of Genji, are frequently regarded as the best works of Japanese literature. Ideals of Japanese beauty also developed to a point that is recognizable today, as women’s mouths were painted small and red and their faces powdered white.

History of Japan: Feudal Period

Kamakura Period (1185 CE – 1333 CE)

Minamoto no Yoritomo, founder of the Japanese Shogunate

The Kamakura period ushered in the establishment of the shogunate, a warrior class that resisted the political influence of the civil aristocracy. The Fujiwara clan were finally defeated in 1189, and the first shōgun Minamoto no Yoritomo was proclaimed by the Emperor in 1192. Total warrior domination was not attained during the Kamakura era. Instead, a system resembling a dyarchy existed, with shared governance between civil power in Kyōto and military power in Kamakura.

The term “tent government” (bakufu) was used to describe Yoritomo’s administration, referring to the tents in which his troops stayed. During this period, the warrior class developed martial skills and awarded values of duty and bravery.

In 1274 and 1281, the entire nation’s samurai armies were summoned to expel two attempted invasions by the Kublai Khan of the Mongol Empire. On both occasions, the invasions were prevented by the Japanese warriors, despite being outnumbered with superior weapons. The defeat of the Mongol fleets was in part attributed to typhoons known as kamikaze, meaning “divine wind.” Despite success against the Mongols, the shogunate’s resources were so exhausted by the defense that it could not pay its warriors for their contribution to the war effort. The shogunate’s relationships with the samurai class were negatively affected permanently because of this, and it ultimately contributed to the collapse of the bakufu in 1333.

Muromachi Period (1336 CE – 1573 CE)

Following Emperor Go Daigo’s overthrow of the bakufu in 1333, a brief period of imperial rule was restored. This period, known as the Kenmu Restoration, alienated the samurai class and caused an eventual rebellion.

Following the rebellion, the Muromachi (or Ashikaga) shogunate officially established itself as governors in 1338 with Ashikaga Takauji as the first Muromachi shōgun. Takauji installed Emperor Kōmyō, a rival member of the imperial line, on the throne. Emperor Go-Daigo escaped to the city of Yoshino in the south, where he established an opposing administration. A civil war between the Northern Court and the Southern Court ensued. The Muromachi shogunate enjoyed significantly less control than the Kamakura shogunate, as it had to simultaneously contend with opposing the Southern Court and preserve its hold on its governors.

Portrait of Shogun Ashikaga of Muromachi Shogunate

It was not until Takauji’s grandson Ashikaga Yoshimitsu assumed power in 1368 that a semblance of peace returned to Japan. Yoshimitsu was largely successful in uniting the nation, and he mediated an agreement in 1392 that brought the Northern and Southern Courts together to end the civil war. Despite this agreement, the shogunate maintained strict control over the emperor and his court. While regional rulers known as daimyōs became increasingly powerful, Yoshimitsu was able to balance that power and control the throne. However, such control was increasingly lost to the daimyōs following his death in 1408.

Japan’s economic success, which had begun during the Kamakura period, persisted well into the Muromachi era. Japan’s population numbered 10 million by 1450, up from 6 million at the end of the 13th century. Trade increased significantly, particularly with China and Korea. As a result of the daimyōs and other Japanese organizations starting to produce their own currency, Japan began to shift from a barter-based to a currency-based economy.

Some of Japan’s most iconic creative forms, such as ink wash painting, ikebana flower arranging, tea ceremony, Japanese gardening, bonsai, and Noh drama, emerged during this time. While Zen Buddhism became an increasingly central aspect of Japanese society, interest in Shinto also began to steadily rise again. The role of the kamikaze in defeating the Mongols during the Kamakura period had contributed significantly to this. As a result, various works were written to reinforce the concept of the emperor as a deity from a Shinto perspective.

Peace did not last long, with the Ōnin War beginning in 1467. The feudal system collapsed and various samurai warlords and clans fought for control as a result.

Azuchi–Momoyama Period (1568 CE – 1600 CE)

Portrait of Oda Nobunaga by Kanō Munehide in 1583

This period began with the capture of Kyoto in 1568 by the warlord Oda Nobunaga. The formidable warlord installed Ashikaga Yoshiaki as what would be the final Ashikaga shōgun while he continued his campaign to control the Kinai region. The shōgun, wary of Nobunaga’s power and influence, began building an army in defense. However, Nobunaga ultimately defeated this army and the Ashikaga shogunate collapsed in 1573. Nobunaga continued in his quest to lead the political unification of Japan, but was eventually killed, or forced to commit suicide, in 1582 by one of his offiers. Fighting to become Nobunaga’s successor, Toyotomi Hideyoshi avenged his death and was ultimately able to unite Japan’s military in 1590.

This era was later named after the capitals held by Nobunaga and Hideyoshi, Azuchi Castle and Momoyama Castle, respectively. Under Hideyoshi’s leadership, Japan became one nation in the second part of the 16th century. During his reign, he brought many radical changes in Japanese society. These included carrying out a thorough land survey, persecution of Christians, confiscation of swords, the introduction of new limitations on daimyo and a rule prohibiting samurai and peasants from changing their classes. An uneasy peace lasted until 1599, when tensions following Hideyoshi’s death began to rise and culminated in the Battle of Sekigahara.

History of Japan: Early Modern Period

Edo Period (1603 CE – 1867 CE)

Portrait of Tokugawa Ieyasu

Following the seizure of control by Tokugawa Ieyasu after the Battle of Sekigahara, the Edo bakufu was established. Appointed as shōgun by Emperor Go-Yōzei in 1603, Ieyasu began the Tokugawa shogunate from the eastern city of Edo (the future Tokyo). The Tokugawa shogunate remained in control of Japan throughout this period, supported by the regional daimyo, and the era was marked by peace, stability and economic growth.

Wood Block Print of a Kabuki Theater by Okumura Masanobu, 18th Century

During this era, the political system evolved into what is now known as bakuhan, a combination of the terms bakufu and han (domains). In the bakuhan, the shōgun had national authority and the daimyo had regional authority. This new unity in the feudal structure required an increasingly large bureaucracy to administer the mixture of centralized and decentralized authorities. The shogunate held unprecedented power in Japan, while the emperor continued to be viewed as the ultimate source of political sanction.

During the Tokugawa shogunate’s rule, Japan’s population doubled to 30 million due to agricultural expansion. For the remainder of the period, the population was steady. By 1700, Japan was thought to have been the most urbanized country in the world. However, approximately 90% of the people still lived in rural areas. The shogunate’s road building, the abolition of bridge tolls, and the standardization of coinage encouraged commercial expansion that also helped the city’s craftspeople and merchants. With urban centers flourishing and agriculture production increasing, economic and technological development rapidly increased.

One of the most significant social transformations of the Edo period was the rise of literacy, which benefited both urban and rural residents. Within a single generation, almost all samurai were literate. This fueled a thriving commercial publishing sector that expanded to create hundreds of publications annually. Books relating to cooking, gardening, art, romance and many more were published and “rented” in bookstores. For the first time, urban populations had the means and time to become immersed in cultural activities such as fashion, music and popular entertainment.

To prevent societal unrest, the Tokugawa shogunate enacted a wide-ranging code to regulate behavior. For even the most minor crimes, harsh punishments, including crucifixion, beheading, and boiling to death were imposed. Upper class prisoners were frequently given the choice of seppuku, an ancient method of suicide. Daimyo houses were also strictly regulated so as to limit their power. Castles were restricted to one per domain, residence in Edo at least every other year was required, and daimyo were regularly asked to submit financial contributions to public works and military development. As the wealth of the daimyo was gradually eroded, so was their threat to the government. For many years, the strict social hierarchy guaranteed peace and stability. Iemitsu, the third shogun of the Tokugawa shogunate, instituted the isolationist sakoku (closed nation) policy, which forbade Japanese citizens from leaving the country, returning after being abroad, or building ocean-going vessels.

American Naval Vessels anchored in the port of Uraga, 1854

In 1853, a fleet of American ships under the leadership of Commodore Matthew C. Perry arrived with the intention of forcibly changing Japan’s isolationist practices. With a comparatively weak military power, the shogunate was unable to challenge the American gunboats and was forced to comply with his requests that American ships be allowed to trade and buy supplies at Japanese ports. Many Japanese, especially those in the southern territories of Chōshū and Satsuma, were outraged by the shogunate’s unwillingness to oppose the Western power. While the American arrival did not itself cause the demise of the Tokugawa shogunate, it served to exacerbate a complex political crisis. The tight control over society by the shogunate and increasing limitations on the entrepreneurial class led to a rising dissatisfaction with the government. This was compounded by economic crises, famines, droughts and increased taxation. The rapid industrialization of the West had also exposed a gap in Japan’s ability to defend itself. As a result, by the time Perry’s ships arrived in Japan, the cracks in the shogunate regime were already beginning to widen.

An alliance between the two southern domains of Chōshū and Satsuma was formed. Tokugawa Yoshinobu, just after becoming shōgun, fought to hold onto power in August 1866 while widespread discontent persisted. In 1868, the Satsuma and Chōshū domains persuaded the young Emperor Meiji and his counselors to release a rescript demanding the overthrow of the Tokugawa shogunate. Following the invasion of Edo by the troops of Chōshū and Satsuma, the shogunate was overthrown in the Boshin War.

History of Japan: Modern Period

The end of the Edo period and the start of the Meiji Era ushered Japan into the modern period. Significant change to Japanese society occurred during these years. Click here to read about how Japanese society developed during the Modern Period to become the global power that it is today.