Japan History: The Meiji Taishō and Shōwa Eras

Table of Contents

Historical Eras in Japan

In Japan history, the reign of each Emperor is considered an era (or nengō), and each era is given a name which is intended to describe the nature of the Emperor’s rule and the political and economic environment of the time. The Emperor is usually posthumously given the name of the era in which he ruled. The Japanese calendar is also based on this system of eras, with the calendar resetting to zero with each new era. For example, 1868 is known as “Meiji year 1”.

While the era-naming system first began in Japan in the year 645, it was not until the year 701 that the system became a permanent feature of the Japanese cultural and political landscape. It has continued uninterrupted ever since and there are now 248 officially named eras in the Japanese calendar.

The Meiji Era (1868 – 1912)

First Imperial Diet Woodblock by Shosai Ginko, 1890

Emperor Meiji, or Mutsuhito, ascended the throne when he was only 14 years old. Prior to his reign, Japan was a feudal society governed by a shōgun. Feudal lords, known as daimyōs, ruled Japan’s realms autonomously. Emperors were left to study art and classics in Kyoto’s palace compound and were not usually involved in national politics.

Following a period of intense political unrest, Japan’s final shōgun was expelled by a group of revolutionaries in the late 1860s. In early 1868, Emperor Meiji proclaimed the “restoration” of Imperial rule with the support of the revolutionaries. Feudalism was formally abolished and the revolutionaries became statesmen who wielded all military, political and economic power with the Emperor as the constitutional monarch.

Thus the Meiji Era began with drastic reform. Having been forced to enter into unequal trade agreements with the West during the 1850s due to its limited military power, Japan was now determined to stand up to, and gain respect from, the Western world. Its aim during this time was to strengthen its economic position and, in turn, strengthen its military position.

The new government began to dismantle many traditional features of Japanese society in favor of Western concepts. Education became compulsory and universal military conscription was introduced, both with the intent of encouraging Japanese nationalism. At the same time, the old class-based system was replaced with democratic ideologies such as equality and individual freedom. By 1871, all daimyōs had returned their land to the Emperor and Japan was subsequently restructured into prefectures. Parliament was established in 1889 and although the Emperor remained the official sovereign, the statesmen retained power. The first National Diet (the legislature) took place in 1890.

First Sino-Japanese War 1894-1895

The development of Japan’s military was crucial to its goal of territorial expansion. To compete with Western colonial powers, the government of Japan decided it was necessary to establish colonies. The First Sino-Japanese War was fought over influence in Korea. Japan’s well-organized and highly motivated forces beat the Qing Dynasty’s more extensive military. In 1895 at the end of the war The Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed whereby China recognized the independence of Korea and ceded Taiwan to Japan.

Fire at an Oil Depot in Port Arthur caused by Japanese Gunfire, 1905

Japan further increased its influence in Asia during the Russo-Japanese War. In the Battle of Yalu River, Japan proved to the world that, for the first time, an Asian nation could defeat a Western power. The spectacular Battle of Tsushima, which was another triumph for Japan’s forces, put an end to the war, and Japan declared Korea a protectorate in 1905, with complete annexation following in 1910. Japan rose to become not just a regional force but also the dominant Asian state.

The early Meiji Era also saw a rise in new technology and industries, which led to an increase in the need for transportation. The government invested heavily in public infrastructure, with the first ever steam locomotive in Japan introduced in 1872 to run on the “Shimbashi Embankment Railway”. This was the first railway line in Japan, connecting Shimbashi Station to Yokohama Station. Conscious of its lack of natural resources, Japan built industries such as shipyards, iron smelters, and spinning mills, and used Western technology to produce goods that could be sold cheaply in the international market. As a result of this rapid industrialization, Japan’s military and economic power grew enormously.

Opened on October 10, 1872 (Meiji 5) in 1872, the old Shimbashi Station was Japan’s first railroad terminal

The Meiji Era also had a large impact on the way that Japan viewed the outside world. Prior to this era, Japan had largely isolated itself. Now, westerners were allowed to enter the country and many Japanese scholars were sent abroad to study science and languages. Japan’s desire to modernize and distance itself from its feudal past led to the destruction of many cultural heritage sites and practices, with the majority of its castles being destroyed in the late 19th century.

By the end of the Meiji Era, Japan had emerged as a leading and industrialized world power. Many of the changes that were introduced during the Meiji Era are still evident in Japan today.

Japan History: The Taishō Era (1912 – 1926)

The Taishō Era is defined by Japan’s rising influence on the world order following World War I and the domestic rise in liberal and democratic views. As World War I kept Japan’s Western allies largely preoccupied, Japan was able to focus on expanding its influence in Asia. At the same time Japan also increasingly provided the West with war materials, which ultimately helped it reduce the country’s large debts incurred during the Meiji Era.

Following World War I, Japan experienced a short period of unprecedented prosperity. It finally received the international recognition and respect it desired when it was officially recognized as one of the “Big Five” nations of the new international order (notably, the only non-Western nation) during the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. As a result, Japan was granted a permanent seat on the Council of the League of Nations. At the same time, what later became known as the “Taishō Democracy” took hold. Liberal and socialist views had trended since the beginning of the century, and reached their peak when the Hara cabinet was elected in 1918 with the first commoner to ever serve as Prime Minister. Japanese society became more interested in the government’s political decisions, the labor movement grew and the belief in individual freedoms and social and political rights became increasingly commonly held.

Great Kanto Earthquake

However, this period of prosperity did not last long. In September 1923, the Great Kantō earthquake struck, killing over 100,000 people in Tokyo and the surrounding area and destroying the homes of more than three million. In addition, post-war challenges such as inflation, rising debt and the consequent increase in taxes caused escalating dissatisfaction and anger towards the government among the Japanese people. While the fight to establish democratic and liberal rights largely defined this period, the Taishō Era ended with impending threats to these movements on the horizon.

The Great Kantō Earthquake, considered one of the most devastating earthquakes in human history

Emperor Taishō’s Condition

Portrait of Emperor Taishō, November 1915

Emperor Taishō, or Yoshihito, was born sickly in 1879. At only three weeks old he was diagnosed with cerebral meningitis, a condition involving acute inflammation covering the protective membranes of the brain and spinal cord.

Although he survived the disease, the effects plagued him throughout his lifetime. Despite ascending to the throne at the age of 33, Taishō was largely kept out of sight from the public due to his worsening physical and mental state. Unlike his father Emperor Meiji, Taishō was generally uninvolved in the politics of his time.

Taishō was also rumored to have become mentally deranged, in particular following the Spyglass Incident in 1913. This unverified legend claimed that Taishō rolled up his speech and took a peek through it like a spyglass during the 1913 opening of the Imperial Diet of Japan. The legend goes that this scared the attendees of the meeting, who became increasingly concerned about the Emperor’s ability to rule the nation. However, others claim that the incident was a misunderstanding and that the Emperor was merely trying to ensure that the document had been rolled-up correctly. The Emperor died of a heart attack on Christmas day in 1926 at the age of 47.

Japan History: The Shōwa Era (1926 – 1989)

The Shōwa Era began in 1926 and lasted until 1989. Emperor Shōwa, more frequently known by his personal name Hirohito, was the longest reigning emperor in Japanese history.

Portrait of Crown Prince Hirohito, who would later be named Emperor Shōwa

The Empire of Japan (1926 – 1945)

The Shōwa Era is often considered to be split into two distinct periods : first the period before World War II (sometimes referred to as the Empire of Japan), and second the period after World War II (also referred to as the State of Japan).

In the period before World War II, the democratic rights that had been afforded to citizens during the Taishō Era were slowly eroded. The Great Depression and the rise of militarism, totalitarianism and ultra-nationalism led to strained relations internationally, particularly with the United States, and to the rise of Japanese colonialism throughout Asia. The Empire of Japan believed that Asian nations needed to unite against the West. It protested against the meaningless capitalism and materialism of the West by emphasizing the superiority of Asian spirituality.

During the 1930s, the idea that Japan’s economic difficulties might be solved by military conquest and expansion gained popularity. As Japan’s population had significantly multiplied, reaching about 65 million by 1930, it required increasing food imports. Japan needed its own exports in order to support such food imports. Western tariffs restricted exports, while emigration was hindered by anti-Japanese racism and discriminatory laws in many nations. Western diplomats had rejected Chinese and Japanese attempts to guarantee racial equality in the League of Nations charter.

The first aggressive expansion by Japan took place in 1928 on the Kwantung Peninsula, which was controlled by the Japanese Kwantung Army. Its officers were tasked with patrolling the South Manchurian Railway zone. Keen to progress Japan’s expansionist efforts, the train of the Manchurian warlord was bombed killing the warlord. This assassination marked the start of further aggressive expansion in the region.

Japanese Troops entering the walled town of Tao Nan, 1931

Known as the Manchurian Incident of 1931, army officers falsely blamed the bombing of the South Manchuria Railroad on the Chinese, allowing them to justify an invasion of Manchuria. The Kwantung Army captured Manchuria and established the Manchukuo puppet regime. China appealed to the League of Nations to consider the incident as a threat to peace. When the Lytton Commission recommended that Manchuria become a Chinese state, Japan rejected the findings and left the League of Nations.

Japanese Soldiers advancing to an unknown position during the Second Sino-Japanese War

The boldness of Japan’s expansionist vision grew. Many members of Japan’s political elite wanted Japan to annex more land so that it could extract raw resources and access more food and labor. This ultimately led to the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937. The Japanese military killed or wounded an estimated 40,000 to 300,000 civilians in Nanjing, and committed war crimes including mass rape in the city. These atrocities are known as the Nanjing Massacre or the Rape of Nanjing.

The inability of the Japanese forces to overthrow the Chiang Kai-Shek-led Chinese government resulted in a violent standoff that lasted until 1945. The United States opposed Japan’s invasion of China. It imposed increasingly tough economic sanctions on the country to deprive it of the means to continue its war.

In 1940, Japan joined the Tripartite Pact, an alliance with Germany and Italy, and this had further negative effects on relations with the US. Japan’s belief that it was superior to, and should be the leader of, all other peoples of Asia made it an unlikely ally for Nazi Germany, which also believed in its own racial superiority. Both countries were intent on disrupting the world order that was dominated by Britain, France and the United States.

USS Shaw exploding after its ammunition storage exploded during the attack in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, 1941

In late 1941, the Japanese government decided to use force to end a US-led embargo. The American fleet was attacked at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, by the Imperial Japanese Navy in a surprise attack on December 7, 1941. As a result of this attack, the US joined the Allies in World War II. Japan then invaded the American, British, and Dutch territories in Asia, including the Philippines, Malaya, Hong Kong, Singapore, Burma, and the Dutch East Indies.

Japanese aircraft attacking a U.S aircraft carrier during the Battle of Midway

Japan won numerous victories in the early phase of the war. However, following the Battle of Midway in June 1942 and the ensuing Battle of Guadalcanal, in which Allied forces liberated the Solomon Islands from Japanese rule, the tide started to shift against Japan. During the war’s later stages, Japan frequently used kamikaze assaults and battled to the very last soldier against overwhelming odds. As a result, the Japanese military developed a reputation for fanaticism.

Kamikaze attack in a U.S warship, 1945

In 1944 the Imperial Japanese Navy started sending out squadrons of kamikaze pilots, who flew their aircraft into enemy ships. Due to strict food rationing, power blackouts, and a ruthless crackdown on dissent, life in Japan became more challenging for its citizens. After the US Army took Saipan in 1944, the door was opened for the US to launch extensive bombing operations against the Japanese mainland.

City of Hiroshima after the nuclear attack

On August 6, 1945, the United States dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, killing over 70,000 people. On August 9, the Soviet Union invaded Manchuria and officially declared war on Japan. The United States dropped a second atomic bomb on Nagasaki, killing almost 40,000 people. Without any nuclear technology to strike back, Emperor Hirohito announced Japan’s surrender to the Allies on August 14, 1945. This signaled the end of the Empire of Japan.

The State of Japan (1945 – 1989): Emperor Showa visits

Emperor Shōwa visits General Douglas McArthur at the U.S Embassy

Japan’s defeat in World War II triggered radical change, beginning with a seven-year occupation by the Allies, led by the United States. This was the first time in all of Japan’s history that it had been occupied. While the Emperor remained as constitutional monarch, his status as a kind of demi-god was formally ended and a liberal democracy was installed. Japan did not become a sovereign state again until 1952.

However, in the period that followed, Japan’s economy and international status again began to grow rapidly. Known as the “Japanese Miracle”, Japan’s economy grew three times faster than any other great nation during this time. Remarkably, it did so without the injection of any foreign capital. Shigeru Yoshida, who served as prime minister from 1946 to 1947 and 1948 to 1954, advocated that Japan should establish close ties with the United States and put more emphasis on economic growth than on pursuing a proactive foreign policy. The United States was also particularly concerned with reintegrating Japan into global trade. Wanting to curtail the influence of the Soviet Union in Asia and to prevent poor economic conditions from plunging Japan towards communism, the United States installed many reforms in Japanese social and economic policy.

Shigeru Yoshida, the person behind Japan’s postwar economic success

The Japanese government created economic growth through a number of policies. The Yoshida administration established the Ministry of International Trade and Industry in 1949, intending to foster economic growth through close coordination between the executive branch and significant corporations. Further key drivers of economic growth included importing technology and quality control methods from the West, non-tariff import barriers, limitations on labor unionization, long workweeks, and an overall positive global economic environment. By 1968 it was the second-largest capitalist economy in the world.

By the time the Shōwa Era came to an end, Japan had navigated through periods of intense political, social and economic conflict to return to its place as one of the world’s leading global powers.

Modern Japan History (1989 – current)

Emperor Akihito waving to the crowd at the New Year’s General Souvenir Ceremony, 2004

The Heisei Era (1989-2019) brought Japan into the modern day. With the death of Emperor Hirohito, his son, Akihito, ascended to the throne. His reign can be characterized by a struggling economy and a declining population. When the economic bubble exploded in 1989, stock and land prices fell, and Japan started to deflate. The 1990s is often referred to in Japan as the Lost Decade and economic performance was slow to recover in the time that followed. The lifetime employment system fell apart and unemployment rates increased. Japanese popular culture, such as video games, anime, and manga expanded globally during this time, especially among young people. Despite the challenges, Japan became one of the most developed and prosperous countries in the world.

Approaching tsunami in the Kitagama district of Natori City

One of the biggest events of Emperor Heisei’s reign occurred on March 11, 2011, when the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami hit the northeast region of Japan. It was one of the largest earthquakes ever recorded in that region, and 19,000 lives were lost and the cost of the resulting damage has been estimated at over $360 billion.

In 2019, Emperor Heisei abdicated the throne and was succeeded by his son, Naruhito. Thus began the current Reiwa Era. The name Reiwa was part of a shortlist of names drawn up by an expert panel of nine members, and means “beautiful harmony”.

Reiwa Emperor Naruhito in 2021

Tokyo was chosen to host the Summer Olympics in 2020 but the event was delayed to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. With 27 gold medals, Japan came in third in the medal table when the Games were finally held.

Opening of the 2020 Tokyo Olympics

While only having approximately 2.5% of the world’s population and 0.3% of the world’s land area, Japan accounts for more than 10% of the world’s GNP and is the second-largest industrialized democracy. The country continues to play a leading role in resolving regional conflicts in Asia, managing East-West relations and helping to achieve global peace and stability.